ASP.NET Framework is based on a concept of predfined controls (web forms) that are translated into HTML/Javasrcipt. Dev experience is similar to win.forms: visual designer form and code behind that handles events emitted by controls.
ASP.NET MVC in turn is more modern framework that implements MVC pattern. MVC pattern allows to place more advanced logic inside controllers. While you can leverage web form here as well but preferred way is to use Razor view engine to be translated to HTML.
ASP.NET Core is ASP.NET MVC for .NET Core. The main diffeernce that it is crossplatform. This comes with a set minor differences (i.e. middlewares).